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EVOLUTION OF THE OFFICE OF EMPEROR
Traces the development of the idea of emperor from Augustus through Vespasian.
SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL TITLES USED ON ROMAN IMPERIAL COINAGE
Defines the main abbreviations and titles.
TWO COIN INSCRIPTIONS
Offers two coin images to be read.
The first problem we have with understanding the transition from republic to empire is to
divorce ourselves from our knowledge. With the advantage of an historical
perspective, we know that the line of
Roman emperors began with Augustus and successfully replaced the republican form of government. For the early emperors
it was not that clear. They neither knew that the experiment would be successful nor how it would eventually be
worked out. As events transpired each new emperor struggled with
the process and made adjustments in just
what one-man rule meant under his reign. There was no plan. There were no rules. It
was experimentation on the grandest of scales.
Standing in their way was an exceptionally strong sense of tradition.
The republican forms of government had lasted some 500 years and had guided
Sulla and Caesar exercised
one-man rule using the ancient office of Dictator. Although this
was a revered and established traditional political office, it proved an unacceptable model for governing. Sulla resigned, Caesar was assassinated.
Neither had the acumen to create a new style of government using the old forms and retaining the support
of the ruling families. This was the genius of Augustus.
But Augustus did not create the “office of emperor” in its final form.
He, rather, created a system of quasi-republican offices and powers that enabled him to rule without wholly
alienating the ruling class. Much of his power was moral and personal rather than formal and legal.
His immediate successors inherited his highly personal system of government.
By various devices they sought to adjust the system, formalize it and adapt it to new situations.
The creation of the office of emperor began with Augustus in 27 BC and did not reach a mature development
until the Lex de Imperio Vespasiani
in late 69 or early 70 AD, a span of nearly
a century.
To see how the transition is reflected in coinage it is necessary to understand the Roman conventions for official titles and for coin
inscriptions.
During the republic inscriptions consisted of the name of the individual followed by the titles
of the offices which conveyed his authority.
Roman men had three and sometimes four names
called Praenomen, Nomen, Cognomen, and Agnomen. The
full legal name was expanded to include the name of the father after the Nomen, written
as the initial of the father’s Praenomen followed by the letter “f” for filius, son.
For example, the full legal name of Scipio Africanus, the man
who defeated
P: The Praenomen
was the personal private name. It was always abbreviated when written. "P." is the abbreviation for Publius.
The eldest son usually took the same name as his father.
It was considered a personal intimate name, one only used by close friends or family members.
CORNELIVS: The
Nomen is called the Gentile name, it was the name of the
gens, the clan. The republic was run by 40 or 50 powerful gentes,
vying with each other from generation to generation for honor and power.
The Cornelii were one of the two or three most powerful clans in all of Roman
history.
P F: stands for Publii
filius, son of Publius.
A man's full legal name included the Praenomen of his father.
SCIPIO: The Cognomen
was the family name. Within a Gens
there would be several main family lines. The Scipii
were the most famous of the Cornelii. Romans
would frequently refer to a well known man by his Cognomen.
AFRICANVS: A
man who had achieved an outstanding victory or other achievement might be awarded an additional name, the Agnomen,
as a mark of distinction. Scipio defeated
The first coins issued by Augustus in 43 BC during his first consulship followed the traditional
republican conventions. The inscription reads:
This inscription consists of his name, C. CAESAR, followed by his titles of authority which
were always placed after the name. The offices listed are Consul, Pontifex and Augur (AVG here is an abbreviation for the honored republican office of Augur
and is not to be confused with AVG as the abbreviation for Augustus). It was the possession of these offices that
conveyed power.
By the time of Vespasian imperial titles had changed considerably, reflecting a new understanding
of power.
What we now call the imperial power was conveyed by the three titles IMP CAES and AVG which
were adopted as parts of the ruler's name. Under the
republic the titles following the name conveyed the authority. Under
the emperors those titles were quite secondary. It was the claim to be IMP CAES AVG which carried the power, not the retention
of the traditional republican offices. It is this evolution in understanding that can be traced in the coinage
of the first nine Roman emperors.
C. Octavius Thurinus was the great-nephew of Julius Caesar and his heir.
When Caesar was killed in 44 BC the 19 year old Octavian became his legal heir, taking the name C. Julius
Caesar Octavianus.
His full adopted legal name was C IVLIVS
C F CAESAR OCTAVIANVS. C is the abbreviation for Caius
or Gaius as it is often written. According
to Roman custom, Octavius, his Nomen, was converted to
the Agnomen Octavianus after adoption. In
a similar way the son of Aemilius Paulus who was adopted
by the son of Scipio Africanus became P. Cornelius Scipio Aemilianus.
He never again used the name Octavianus but, in a twist of fate, historians have traditionally called him Octavian
to distinguish him from Julius Caesar. Later, as ruler,
he was given the honorary name Augustus and subsequently used Augustus or Caesar Augustus as his names. His preferred
title was Princeps (First Citizen) and he was never called Imperator (Emperor) or Dominus (Lord). His friends and family probably
called him Gaius.
Fifty years of civil wars had demonstrated that the old republican form of government no longer
worked. However
Roman conservatism did not allow for a radical departure from the republican forms.
Octavian's great challenge was to invent a new form of one-man-rule which was compatible with the Romans
deep-seated conservative political traditions yet which met the needs of empire.
The transformation of Roman government from a the city-state republican
institutions to empire occurred in many small stages. The constitutional
adjustments usually mentioned are those of 27 BC, 23 BC, 19 BC and, some add, 2 BC.
In truth the process involved many incremental changes beginning with the successive Consulships of Marius
in 100 BC and continuing throughout the
entire period of empire.
Octavian was given the name Augustus in 27 BC and most historians date the beginning of empire
from that event. In 23 BC he was given the Tribunician
Power and he himself dated the years of his reign from that event. He
died on
43 BC C.CAESAR.COS.PONT.AVG
Caius Caesar Consul Pontifex {priest] Augur
This shows his republican position as Consul and his religious titles of Pontifex
and Augur.
43 BC C.CAESAR.IMP.III.VIR.R.P.C.PONT.AV
Caius Caesar Imperator for the third time, one of the three men charged to reconstitute
the republic, Pontifex, Augur.
Titles include his acclamation as Imperator. This
should not be confused with the later use of IMP meaning emperor. In
this use it was a title of acclamation celebrating military victory, a
republican tradition dating to Scipio Africanus.
The other titles listed are his special designation as III.VIR.R.P.C.
This abbreviation stands for TRES VIRI REI PVBLICAE CONSTITVENDAE, his legal title as one of the triumvirs
conveyed by the Senate.
At this point his titulature is wholly within the bounds of republican precedent
except that his titles are not those of the customary republican
offices.
On
As of 42 BC Octavian's legal name became C. Julius divi Julii filius Caesar. Again,
this is in good republican naming tradition.
38 BC IMP.CAESAR.DIVI.IVLI.F
Imperator Caesar son of the deified Julius
There are two innovations here. Octavian uses IMP as
a Praenomen rather than a title after his name.
Imperator was a traditional republican title. Originally it
was given by the troops themselves to a victorious general. Being
honored as an Imperator was recognized by adding IMP as a title following the name itself.
Octavian’s use of IMP is somewhat different. IMP
as a permanent and hereditary title was
one of the many extraordinary privileges voted to Julius Caesar, but he never used it.
Octavian inherited it along with the name. His use of it as
a praenomen probably conveyed the idea that he was a kind of super general, that winning great victories was a personal quality.
The second innovation is the reference to DIVI IVLI F. Being
DIVI F gave Octavian a certain religious aura and a
little more prestige than the ordinary man. With these two titles
we can see non-constitutional elements
coming into play in the development of Octavian's auctoritas in the state.
28 BC IMP.CAESAR.DIVI.F.COS.VI
Imperator Caesar son of the deified (“Julius” is assumed) Consul for the sixth time
After the conclusion of the civil war Octavian was the undisputed master of the legions. He held the constitutional office of Consul as the source of his legal
authority.
18 BC IMP.CAESAR.AVG.TR.POT.VI
Imperator Caesar Augustus, holder of the Tribunical Power for the sixth time
In 27 BC Octavian was given the
quasi-religious agnomen AVGVSTVS. The provinces were
divided between his administration and that of the Senate's. His
power was based on the consulship and his maius imperium.
Imperium was the power of the magistrate to command.
His imperium was recognized as greater than any of the other magistrates. In 23 BC he gave up the consulship.
The two annual consulships were the traditional prizes over which the great republican families had traditionally
contested with each other. They carried great prestige for the individual
and the family. By holding one of the two consulships, Octavian was
depriving the great families of their chance at this office. He shrewdly
realized that this was a cause of resentment and surrendered the office, finding other less offensive ways to hold
and exercise power.
In its place he received the TRIBVNICA POTESTAS, the power of the Tribune, but without the
office itself. The Tribune was an ancient republican office, held
only by plebians, and empowered to check the power of the Senate.
By holding the Tribunical power he was able to control affairs of state without
actually holding office. He himself dated his reign from this.
TR P will become one of the titles
of power for future emperors. This coin inscription is a break with
tradition for it defines his power in terms of IMP and AVG and TR P, none of which are republican.
In 2 BC Augustus was given the title PATER PATRIAE.
In the last 16 years of his life his inscriptions
emphasized his patriotic and religious titles rather
than his military and constitutional ones.
The struggle to establish the constitutional basis for power was over.
The titles used in the last years of his rule enhance his dignity and prestige and auctoritas,
often without reference to any legal titles of power. The departure
from republican traditions is complete.
CAESAR.AVGVSTVS.DIVI.F.PATER.PATRIAE.PONTIF.MAXIM
CAESAR AVGVSTVS DIVI F
CAESAR AVGVSTVS
AVGVSTVS
None of these inscriptions note his legal powers or the offices he held (TR P, COS). By this point in his reign Augustus is secure.
He chooses not to mention his power but, rather, to emphasize his religious and spiritual qualities. The first example above starts with his adopted name, Caesar, adds the
quasi-religious Agnomen Augustus, notes his relationship to the deified Julius, then cites the honorary title Father
of his Country and finally his role as chief priest. Augustus
was cloaking his absolute power in veils of patriotism and religion. He
could do this because of his immense authority and prestige in the state.
But his followers, lacking that same prestige and some even lacking the family connections, would be forced
to find other means of communicating their authority.
Original name: Ti. Claudius T. f. Nero
Adopted name: Ti. Julius Augustus f. Caesar Augustus Claudianus
Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus, his adopted son and the designated heir.
By the time of Augustus' death Tiberius already held the Tribunician Power and
the proconsular imperium over the armies.
In addition, Tiberius was the greatest general of the Roman army at the time and was enormously popular
among the legions.
While Augustus is still alive Tiberius shared almost equal powers but did not use them independently.
Imperator appeared only after his name indicating military acclamation, in good republican tradition. He did not
advertise his possession of other powers such as TR P and PM as would most later emperors.
His whole titulary is oriented toward the hereditary nature of his power. While Augustus
was alive Tiberius did not use the name Augustus. In 14 AD Augustus died and almost at once is declared Divine.
Tiberius took the agnomen Augustus and
acquired the additional designation divi filius. Tiberius'
full name became Ti. Julius Augustus f. Caesar Augustus Claudianus
He was 54 when he became emperor. He died on
TI AVGVST.IMP.VIII
TI.CAESAR.DIVI.AVG.F.AVGVSTVS
Tiberius Caesar son of the deified Augustus
Augustus. This is simply
his name.
Tiberius is said to have been republican in his sentiments but enough of a realist to know
that an emperor was necessary. His succession was never in doubt and he had little need to enhance his already
secure position with coin titulature. This is reflected in his conservative inscriptions. He neither tried to compete with Augustus in prestige, nor to enhance
the constitutional basis for power. Most of his coinage simply states
his legal name, Ti. Julius Caesar divi Augusti
filius Augustus Claudianus.
He sometimes added the republican title IMP after his name. A
few coin issues included TR P or PM in his titles but none used IMP as a Praenomen
or the titles COS or PM. . He did not include the possession of Consulships
in his titles. His powers derived from his relationship to Augustus and his posession
of the TR P. Thus, really, for the first time the Consulship was not included as the source of the chief power.
Even Augustus had used that as a part of his titlature.
This represents a significant departure from republican customs.
Tiberius had been raised to equal powers with Augustus before Augusutus’
death. He was secure on the throne and had no need to display offices,
titles or powers to secure his position. Tiberius used those titles
and offices even less than had Augusutus.
Original name: C. Claudius Drusus
Adopted name: C. Caesar Augustus Claudianus
Germanicus
Gaius was the grandson of Tiberius' only brother, Germanicus. He was adopted by Tiberius and designated as heir.
His legal name was C. Julius Tiberius
filius Caesar Augustus Germanicus.
When Tiberius died he was 24 years old. After an illness in
his first year his behavior became erratic and he lost support. He
was assassinated on
C.CAESAR.DIVI.AVG.PRON.AVG.PM.TRP.IIII.PP
Caius Caesar grand-nephew
of the Divine Augustus, Augustus, Pontifed Maximus, holding
the Ttribuincal Power for the third time, Father of his Country.
This inscription deviates only slightly from traditional republican forms.
It consists of his adopted Praenomen
C (Gaius) and
Nomen CAESAR.
It then deviates. The normal naming convention would at this
point have TI F – son of Tiberius. However by the end of Tiberius’
life he was unpopular and Gaius chose to ignore his adopted father in favor of his great uncle, Augustus.
Hence at this point he lists his name as DIVI AVG PRON [proneps, grand-nephew, to the deified Augustus.
Gaius was
also quick to take the other titles such as PM and TR P and P P and almost always used
the full set of titles, perhaps because he did not have a strong a basis as Tiberius had had.
Even so, his inscriptions consisted essentially of his legal name followed by his titles, pretty much in
standard republican tradition.
Original: Ti. Claudius Drusus Germanicus
As emperor: Ti Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Claudius was a member of the Claudian gens,
not the Julian gens. He was the nephew
of Tiberius and the uncle of Caligula. Because of a physical disability
he was not groomed for public office by the family and thus, unlike his predecessors, he was never adopted into
the Julian household. After the assassination of Caligula, Claudius
was the last male member of the household, although neither a blood relative of Augustus nor an adopted member
of the family. In addition there was competition for power from the
Senate and Claudius owed his selection to the imperial guard in defiance of the Senate.
Without an otherwise secure claim to the power, he identified himself with the imperial household and took
the names of the Julian family, which had the loyalty of the army.
During his reign he sometimes used his own inherited Agnomen, GERMANICVS (his father) and his newly awarded
Agnomen, BRITANNICVS. He was 49 when he became emperor and died on
TI CLAVD CAESAR AVG PM TRP IIII
Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Pontifex Maximus
Tribunical Power for the third time
The real innovation was
his adoption of the imperial names CAESAR AVGVSTVS which did not belong to him.
His own name was TI. CLAVDIVS DRVSVS GERMANICVS.
But for some 63 years the ruler had been a member of Julian family and all had shared the family name CAESAR and the hereditary
Agnomen AVGVSTVS. Moreover, the army, which had supported him
against the Senate, was fiercely loyal to the Julian household. We
can really only speculate on his reasons for taking those names rather than retaining his own, but by doing so
he set them on their way to becoming titles of power rather than simply family names.
Original name: Lucius Cn. f. Domitius Ahenobarbus
Adopted name: Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus
Nero was the son of Caligula's sister who
later married Claudius. In 50 AD he was adopted
by Claudius. When Claudius died Nero was only 16 years old.
More than any other emperor he has been vilified by historians. In
fact, Nero's reign was benign and popular
until the departure of his two main advisors, Seneca and Burrus in 62. After that he
began to be disliked in
Nero had been adopted by Claudius and therefore had legal right to the names of the Julian
family. As emperor his titulature was
fairly standard until late in his reign, 65 or 66 AD, when
he renewed the use of IMP as a Praenomen.
It was probably meant to emphasize his overriding authority
in the Roman state. Since his adoption of IMP was connected
with his crowning of the eastern king of
Nero seldom indicated the number of his TR P's. Nor did he ever indicate the office of Consul
on his coinage. He based his titles on his hereditary connection to the Julian family and his TR P
, PP and PM titles. After 62 his reign becomes increasingly unpopular.
56-7 NERO CAESAR AVG IMP
Reverse: PONTIF MAX TR P III PP
IMP
This inscription is in
good republican tradition. It consists of his name and the title
IMP on the obverse and a list of titles on the reverse. The use of
IMP at this time indicates merely the
acclamation by the troops and is not an imperial title as such.
65 NERO CLAVD CAESAR
AVG GER P M TR P IMP P P
In the above inscription Nero uses almost his full name Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus
Germanicus with the slight modification of omitting “Drusus”
and including the inherited agnomen Augustus. He also includes the
title TR P, IMP and PP.
65-6 IMP NERO CAESAR AVG PONT MAX
TR POT P P
In 65 AD there was a major conspiracy against Nero resulting in the execution of many of the
nobility, including Nero’s childhood tutor, the philosopher Seneca. The
conspiracy rightly alarmed Nero and marked
a change in his administration as well as his titulature.
Nero revived use of IMP as a Praenomen.
He was the first one to use it as a praenomen since Augustus.
Nearly all subsequent emperors would follow this example.
Original name: Servius Sulpicius Galba
Imperial name: Servius Sulpicius Galba Caesar Augustus
Galba, the governor of
Galba, the first of the non-Julian emperors, reigned from March
of 68 to January of 69. His coinage is important because he was faced
with the choice of retaining the titles and names of a rival family or starting a whole new titulature
using his own family titles and names, which would have been the more traditional thing to do.
Galba's GENS was the Sulpicii, a family more ancient
and distinguished than the Julii.
April to August, 68:
SER.GALBA.IMP
He initially used his own clan names on his coinage rather than those of the Julii
gens. His first coin issues read SER.GALBA.IMP in true republican fashion.
August to October, 68: SER.GALBA.IMP.AVG
He added the agnomen AVGVSTVS only after having met with a delegation of Senators in August.
November, 68
SER.GALBA.IMP.CAES.AVG.TRP
After entering
December, 68
IMP.SER.GALBA.CAES.AVG.TRP
A month or so later he took IMP
as a Praenomen. He thus set IMP CAES AVG --
essentially names of Julio-Claudian family -- on their way toward becoming the new
titles of absolute power. TR P and other offices were the constitutional
basis for power, but
IMP CAES AVG were the titles which both claimed and proclaimed that
power.
The evolution of Galba’s coinage is critical to the development
of imperial titulature. Had he retained
his own name in the republican tradition and remained Ser Galba Imp the evolution of
the titles connected with the office may have altogether different. The
fact that he felt compelled to adopt the names of a rival family is an indication of the strength of the identification
of the office with the family.
Full name: Marcus Salvius
Otho
Otho had been raised at court and knew all of the emperors since
Tiberius. Nero had married Otho's ex-wife
and assigned him a province in
IMP.OTHO.CAESAR.AVG.TRP
Otho only reigned for three months in 69 and used just one form
of titulary. He essentially followed
Galba’s lead and
retained IMP CAES AVG, helping to solidify them as titles of power.
Original name: Aulus Vitellius
As emperor: A. Vitellius Germanicus
imp Avg pm trp
Aulus Vitellius was raised to emperor by his German legions
on
A.VITELLIVS.GERMAN.IMP
Much like Galba
before him, in his earliest coinage he used A.VITELLIVS.GERMAN.IMP
as his title. There
is no reference to the traditional Julian names and titles here. GERMAN
refers not to Claudius' father GERMANICVS but to the German legions he commanded and
which were his source of power.
A.VITELLIVS.GERMANICVS.IMP.AVG.PM.TRP
After the death of Otho in April, 69, and his subsequent approval
by the Senate Vitellius
added AVG PM and TRP. He
did not use IMP CAESAR as titles of power.
As late as Vitellius it was unclear if the connection with the
family of Julius Caesar would be an essential aspect of imperial nomenclature or not.
Vitellius appears to have based his claim to power solely on the acclamation
of his army, with no reference to the delicate balance between tradition and empire that those before him had evolved. The issue was finally decided by his successor, Vespasian.
Original name: Titus Flavius Vespasianus
Vespasian was from a humble background, the first non-aristocratic
emperor. He had been appointed to the command of the legions
fighting the Jewish rebellion. On
IMP CAES VESP AVG P M COS IIII
IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG COS III
IMP CAES VESPASIAN AVG P M TR P P P
COS III
IMP CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVG
Vespasian's original name was T. Flavius Vespasianus. Vespasian adopted what would become
the standard titulature for future emperors.
He takes IMP as a praenomen and CAESAR
as a Nomen, kept his own cognomen VESPASIANVS and took AVGVSTVS as his
Agnomen. With this choice on his part the three Julian names
IMPERATOR CAESAR AVGVSTVS are finally established as titles conveying
imperial power and will be so used for thousands of years, enduring into modern times as the words
Emperor [Imperator] and Tsar,
Shaw and Kaiser [Caesar].
Vespasian is the first to use IMP CAES as linked first names.
Vespasian also listed his consulships on his coins. H was the first one since Augustus
to note this on his coins. Possibly because of his humble origins it may have been attractive for him to emphasize
his acquisition of the consular rank which was the traditional mark of attainment of status for a family
With Vespasian we have two competing elements in sharp relief. On the one hand, Vespasian was clearly nominated
and put on the throne by his soldiers. He himself recognized this
by dating his powers to the proclamation by his army, not the approval of the Senate.
On the other hand, we have the legalization of his
power by the Senate’s Lex de Imperio Vespasiani. The power of the army to create
emperors, the necessity for legalization through political processes would be competing forces throughout the rest
of Roman history.
With the Lex de Imperio Vespasiani
we have clear evidence that the transition from republic to empire is complete.
The ruler has clearly recognized titles of power -- IMP CAES AVG --
and the legal basis is now a single act of the Senate rather than a combination of various republican
offices and special privileges. Although the nature of the
imperial power would continue to change and evolve for the next 400 years,
the passage of the Lex de Imperio Vespasiani
marks the end of the transition from republic to empire.
After the turmoil of the three emperors in oneyear Vespasian,
not a prominent member of the nobility but an outsider,
was proclaimed emperor by the Prefect of Egypt. In
attempting to establish his claim Vespasian immediately adopted all of the titles and
names which were associated with , in his promotion of Vespasian
as the new emperor, issued coins ascribing the new claimant all the imperial title, including for the first time,
two imperial first names in inseparable association, Imperator and Caesar.
From this time on the names Caesar and Augustus become a part of the imperial titulature. Eventually CAESAR becomes the title given to the heir apparent and
AUGUSTUS becomes the title reserved for the reigning emperor, although he may also retain the title CAESAR.
Caesar as a royal title persisted until the 20th century.
The royal titles TSAR, SHAW and KAISER derive from CAESAR.
NERVAE TRAIANO: Nerva
Trajan: these were the names of
Trajan. His original name was M.
Ulpius Traianus.
His clan (Gens or Gentile) name was Ulpius and his
family branch were the Traiani.
Upon his adoption by the emperor M. Cocceius Nerva
his adopted name became M. Ulpius Nerva Traianus. Hence his coins bear his twin names Nerva
Trajan.
AVG = AUGUSTUS. Augustus was
a special name invented for Octavius and given to him by the Senate in 27 BC in recognition
of his contributions toward reestablishing the state. From
this time on he never called himself C. Julius Caesar on his coins
but always either Augustus or Caesar Augustus. More than a title, it became his name, much as Christ renamed Simon,
Peter. It was a new word, invented for the purpose and derived
from ancient religious words such as Auspices and Augur. It
was reverential, had a connotation of sacredness and put him in a class by himself.
The Roman historian Suetonius wrote that "sanctuaries and all places consecrated
by the augurs were known as 'ñaugust.'" Yet the
name/title Augustus, with all of its deep religious connotations, did not offend the deep Republican and conservative
sentiments of the Romans as would the titles kind or dictator.
GER DAC = GERMANICUS DACIUS. These
are honorary titles given to Trajan in commemoration of his important military victories
over the Germans in 97 and the Dacians in 102.
Later, in 115 he would defeat the Parthians and be awarded the additional title
PARTHICUS, so we know that this coin was minted between 102 and 115 AD.
P M = PONTIFEX MAXIMUS, Chief Priest. This
title indicated the emperor's role
as head of the religion. (It is still used by the Pope
today.) Considerable power was attached to religious
rituals in ancient
TR P = TRIBUNICIA
POTESTAS, The Tribunician power. In
the Republic the Tribuneship was devised as a protection for the common people against
the aristocrats of the Senate and nobility. Eventually it became
a part of the Roman political structure but never lost its attractiveness as the one office which existed solely
for the benefit of the people. By the late Republic the office still retained some of its powers -- to veto legislation,
for example.
In 23 B.C. Augustus was given "the tribunican power for
life, a vague but popular echo of the ancient tribunes who had stood for the rights of the lower classes. It was not a power of any great practical importance, but a significant
bid for the support of the populace as a whole, whom the tribunes had traditionally protected from oppression.
When Augustus accepted the power of the Tribuneship but without
holding the office he acquired not only those powers but also the great prestige and popularity that went with
the office. He was proclaiming himself defender par excellence
of the people's interests. The power was granted for lifetime but renewed each year.
Augustus numbered the years of his reign from the renewals of this power.
Subsequent emperors followed suit and on their coinage the inscription frequently reads TRPVII meaning having
the Tribunician power for the seventh time.
When this convention is used it is quite helpful in dating the coin to a precise year.
Roman coin inscriptions are difficult to read for several reasons.
The strike can be off center, as in the coin below. Wear on
the letters may make them almost invisible. The Latin words are simply
run together without separation. And the conventions of abbreviations are unfamiliar.
Below are two coins. The first is of Claudius. It was poorly struck so that only a part of the inscription is visible. The visible part, starting at the back of his neck, is:
Were it visible the full inscription would read
The following coin image is offered as a challenge to the reader to try to work out the inscription.
Because it is difficult to read the inscription as it circles the coin image above, the image has been rotated below to make the task easier.
The 5 letters at the back of his neck (top of this
illustration) are difficult to make out because of the lighting and the wear on the coin.
They are PMTRP.
Hint: The full inscription was used in the text above.
© 2003, Gary Brueggeman. All rights reserved world wide. No part of this work may be reproduced in part or
whole, in any form or by any means, without permission from the author.